Pilot controls and wing components will be covered by Crouzet and Aciturri, respectively, as first prototype production begins.
The all-electric aircraft company has been given exclusive rights to operate air taxis in Dubai by early 2026 for six years, in addition to other financial and operational support. high silica high temperature fiberglass
The new PO-Rein joint venture factory in Jiading, Shanghai, aims to be operational in 2026, producing up to 60,000 hydrogen vessels and high-pressure hydrogen storage systems per year for the Chinese commercial vehicle market.
A free, four-part educational series aims to bring awareness of composite materials’ advantages to the uncrewed systems and autonomy community.
A look into the tape/liner materials, LATW/recycling processes, design software and new equipment toward commercialization of Type 4.5 tanks.
Supply of Type IV composite hydrogen storage tanks for North American bus market extended, 2023 revenue up 37% driven by H2 infrastructure solutions, heavy-duty truck, bus and aerospace with 50% revenue increase expected again in 2024.
Plyable continues to rid composites engineers of workflow bottlenecks through an end-to-end automated system — from mold design to quotation to manufacturing fulfillment.
JEC World 2024: The RAMPF Group is bringing together three of its divisions — RAMPF Composite Solutions, RAMPF Tooling Solutions, and RAMPF Group Inc. — delivering a variety of materials and services to the composites industry.
Computed tomography (CT) provides highly accurate 3D analysis of internal microstructure, performance simulation of carbon fiber/PEEK satellite strut.
Kineco Kaman Composites India uses a bespoke Fill Accubot ultrasonic testing system to boost inspection efficiency and productivity.
JEC World 2024: With new logo and rebranding in hand, Composite Test & Evaluation Ltd. invites industry and potential partners to learn more about its decades experience in material, evaluation services.
Through a strategic partnership, the companies introduce the FiberScanner3D module, dedicated to bringing more rapid, reliable and robust fiber structure characterization methods to lab settings.
With the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris, this year’s JEC World is bound to be abuzz with talk of this year’s event — from the use of composites in sporting equipment to the roles they play in AAM.
Twenty-one-inch, ~10-kilogram hybrid wheel, developed by Dymag in partnership with Hankuk Carbon, is part of an intensive development program by Hyundai.
Bio-based MTM 49-3 responds to sustainability goals in automotive, containing 30% bio-sourced monomers.
JEC World 2024: Bcomp continues the tradition of exhibiting components from diverse markets, including motorsport, wider mobility and performance sports equipment, that incorporate ampliTex and powerRibs fibers.
Together, AFPT, Alformet and New Frontier Technologies are fostering a productive environment for development of well-designed thermoplastic composites via automation, innovative design and advanced 3D expertise.
Hufschmied moves beyond optimized milling and drilling tools to develop SonicShark inline quality control system and Cutting Edge World cloud platform for optimized tool use and processes.
JEC World 2024: Engineering Technology Corp. is exhibiting offerings ranging from high-speed filament winding equipment to integrated robotic solutions, in addition to new standard line of tape wrappers.
JEC World 2024: Roctool is introducing the R-IDS, a patented heated platen that aims to make mass production more accessible for composites manufacturing.
JEC World 2024: The DLR is presenting the EmpowerAX multi-curved shell demo part as a JEC Innovation Award winning innovation, in addition to results from other projects involving hydrogen tanks, wind and more.
JEC World 2024: A pressure vessel for HydroExceed manufactured via a recently delivered multi-spindle filament winder displays Mikrosam’s expertise in filament winding equipment.
Hufschmied moves beyond optimized milling and drilling tools to develop SonicShark inline quality control system and Cutting Edge World cloud platform for optimized tool use and processes.
JEC World 2024: Avel Robotics’ IMOCA hydrofoil, fresh off the water, is being highlighted at Toray Carbon Fiber Europe’s booth, showcasing a successful collaboration in using towpreg and AFP for efficient race boat development.
Increasingly, prototype and production-ready smart devices featuring thermoplastic composite cases and other components provide lightweight, optimized sustainable alternatives to metal.
CW explores key composite developments that have shaped how we see and think about the industry today.
Knowing the fundamentals for reading drawings — including master ply tables, ply definition diagrams and more — lays a foundation for proper composite design evaluation.
As battery electric and fuel cell electric vehicles continue to supplant internal combustion engine vehicles, composite materials are quickly finding adoption to offset a variety of challenges, particularly for battery enclosure and fuel cell development.
Performing regular maintenance of the layup tool for successful sealing and release is required to reduce the risk of part adherence.
The composite pressure vessel market is fast-growing and now dominated by demand for hydrogen storage.
When developing new products and formulations, there are a large number of additive choices to improve a single property you are aiming for: tougheners, plasticizers, flame retardants, the list goes on. One promising additive is graphene and its derivatives, but most organizations don’t know where to begin, so development walls are hit early in the process and therefore projects can be abandoned before success. But your chances of success are drastically increased when you partner with industry experts that know what forms of graphene will meet your needs. In this webinar Mito Materials will discuss how to successfully source, formulate and deploy any graphene material in the world — and do it to your specs and timeline.
With advancements in raw materials technology and processing, more sustainable and economical solutions for composite tooling are increasingly available. This webinar will discuss the potential for epoxy tooling prepregs to provide additional benefits and cost savings when producing composite tools for the aerospace and automotive markets. Agenda: Principles of ply reduction: best practices Key benefits of faster lamination Proving the case What's next for the future
The burgeoning advanced air mobility (AAM) market promises to introduce a new mode of transport for urban and intercity travelers — particularly those who wish to bypass the traffic congestion endemic to the world’s largest cities. The electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft serving this market, because they depend on battery-powered propulsion, also depend on high-strength, high-performance composite structures produced at volumes heretofore unseen in the aerospace composites industry. This CW Tech Days will feature subject matter experts exploring the materials, tooling and manufacturing challenges of ramping up composites fabrication operations to efficiently meet the demands of a challenging and promising new marketplace.
Manufacturers often struggle with production anomalies that can be traced back to material deviations. These can cause fluctuations in material flow, cooling, and cure according to environmental influences and/or batch-to-batch variations. Today’s competitive environment demands cost-efficient, error-free production using automated production and stable processes. As industries advance new bio-based, faster reacting and increased recycled content materials and faster processes, how can manufacturers quickly establish and maintain quality control? In-mold dielectric sensors paired with data analytics technology enable manufacturers to: Determine glass transition temperature in real time Monitor material deviations such as resin mix ratio, aging, and batch-to-batch variations throughout the process Predict the influence of deviations or material defects during the process See the progression of curing and demold the part when the desired degree of cure, Tg or crystallinity is achieved Document resin mix ratios using snap-cure resins for qualification and certification of RTM parts Successful case histories with real parts illustrate how sensXPERT sensors, machine learning, and material models monitor, predict, and optimize production to compensate for deviations. This Digital Mold technology has enabled manufacturers to reduce scrap by up to 50% and generated energy savings of up to 23%. Agenda: Dealing with the challenge of material deviations and production anomalies How dielectric sensors work with different composite resins, fibers and processes What is required for installation Case histories of in-mold dielectric sensors and data analytics used to monitor resin mixing ratios and predict potential material deviations How this Digital Mold technology has enabled manufacturers to optimize production, and improve quality and reliability
SolvaLite is a family of new fast cure epoxy systems that — combined with Solvay's proprietary Double Diaphragm Forming technology — allows short cycle times and reproducibility. Agenda: Application Development Center and capabilities Solutions for high-rate manufacturing for automotive Application examples: battery enclosures and body panels
OEMs around the world are looking for smarter materials to forward-think their products by combining high mechanical performance with lightweight design and long-lasting durability. In this webinar, composite experts from Exel Composites explain the benefits of a unique continuous manufacturing process for composites profiles and tubes called pull-winding. Pull-winding makes it possible to manufacture strong, lightweight and extremely thin-walled composite tubes and profiles that meet both demanding mechanical specifications and aesthetic needs. The possibilities for customizing the profile’s features are almost limitless — and because pull-winding is a continuous process, it is well suited for high volume production with consistent quality. Join the webinar to learn why you should consider pull-wound composites for your product. Agenda: Introducing pull-winding, and how it compares to other composite manufacturing technologies like filament winding or pultrusion What are the benefits of pull-winding and how can it achieve thin-walled profiles? Practical examples of product challenges solved by pull-winding
JEC World in Paris is the only trade show that unites the global composite industry: an indication of the industry’s commitment to an international platform where users can find a full spectrum of processes, new materials, and composite solutions.
Charting the Skies of Tomorrow: The Sustainable Aviation Revolution Welcome to a new era of air travel where innovation meets sustainability. Electric, hybrid-electric and hydrogen-powered aircraft represent a promising path to reach climate neutrality goals, with the aviation industry and governments jointly pushing boundaries to bring disruptive aircraft into service by 2035. From cutting-edge technologies to revamped regulations and greener airports, the pursuit of sustainable aviation requires unparalleled collaboration throughout the whole aviation value chain and ecosystem. Join us at the Clean Aviation Annual Forum from 5 until 6 March 2024, as we navigate towards cleaner skies together.
Composites 2024 is an international conference that focuses on advanced technology and development of composite materials. It brings together participants from academia and industry who share an interest in Composite Materials. It is a unique opportunity for composite specialists and newcomers alike and has long been a venue where researchers and industrialists network and share with colleagues from around the world and establish long term partnership. The conference includes plenary talks, keynote and oral presentations as well as posters sessions, an exhibit area for industry partners and sponsors, and an entertaining social program.
The European polyamide market is going through unprecedented times as it grapples with rising energy and feedstock prices, as well as declining consumption levels with lower demand from almost all application segments (including automotive, construction, fibres and E&E). Coupled with the growing emphasis on sustainability, recycling and the circular economy, this is a challenging period for the polyamide market in Europe. Is 2024 the year that the polyamide segment looks to emerge from the crisis tunnel? The industry needs to adapt to the new market reality, to innovate and invest in new technologies and processes to meet the new market demands and requirements with regards to economic sustainability and a circular economy. The Wood Mackenzie European Polyamide Conference takes place at the Kap Europa Congress Center in Frankfurt, Germany on 13-14 March 2024, combining integrated analysis across the polyamide value chain with sessions focused on feedstocks, polymers, and key application markets, deep dives into emerging trends and technologies. Themes for 2024 include: Is there any hope for the European polyamide industry? Is the polyamide profitability gone? What can we expect in the coming years? Will China's importation threat permanently change the European polyamide market? What are the future polyamide price trends and forecasts? Who will be the winners and losers of the current situation Is the circular economy a threat or an opportunity for the polyamide industry?
From 20-22 March, WindEurope’s annual on- and offshore wind energy event will be heading to Bilbao for a three-day conference and exhibition. You can expect 10,000+ attendees to join us for a look at the shape of European wind energy today. There’ll be dozens of conference sessions, hundreds of speakers, and 400+ exhibitors from the whole value chain looking to showcase their innovations and seal new deals. We’ll have social events across the event for you to reach out to new colleagues and educational sessions showing you all the ins and outs of wind energy. And plenty of time in between it all to sample all the gastronomic and architectural delights Bilbao has to offer!
ACMA's Thermoplastic Composites Conference (TCC) is an insightful and collaborative event that focuses on high-performance thermoplastic composites innovations, applications, and technology. This conference is dedicated to sharing knowledge and fostering education by exploring the advancements and opportunities that exist today and those expected to shape the future. Attendees can expect to benefit from the return of ACMA's highly-regarded composites education program, featuring more than 20 dynamic sessions led by industry experts. The conference will bring together over 200 industry leaders and professionals, providing an excellent networking opportunity for attendees to connect with like-minded individuals and establish valuable professional relationships. Join your peers on March 26 – 28, 2024 in San Diego, CA!
Thousands of people visit our Supplier Guide every day to source equipment and materials. Get in front of them with a free company profile.
Jetcam’s latest white paper explores the critical aspects of nesting in composites manufacturing, and strategies to balance material efficiency and kitting speed.
Arris presents mechanical testing results of an Arris-designed natural fiber thermoplastic composite in comparison to similarly produced glass and carbon fiber-based materials.
Cevotec, a tank manufacturer, Roth Composite Machinery and Cikoni, have undertaken a comprehensive project to explore and demonstrate the impact of dome reinforcements using FPP technology for composite tanks.
Initial demonstration in furniture shows properties two to nine times higher than plywood, OOA molding for uniquely shaped components.
The composite tubes white paper explores some of the considerations for specifying composite tubes, such as mechanical properties, maintenance requirements and more.
Foundational research discusses the current carbon fiber recycling landscape in Utah, and evaluates potential strategies and policies that could enhance this sustainable practice in the region.
CW Top Shops honoree Cobra International reflects on its growth over 45+ years, as well as current work expanding its automotive and UAV capabilities, increasing energy efficiency and new SMC production lines.
Hufschmied moves beyond optimized milling and drilling tools to develop SonicShark inline quality control system and Cutting Edge World cloud platform for optimized tool use and processes.
Veteran composites sites use kaizen and innovation culture to expand thermoplastic serial production, 4.0 digitization and new technology for diversified new markets.
New business builds on 100-year legacy in quartz, prepares for growth, while starting production of oxide fibers to meet increased demand for CMC by aerospace and industrial sectors.
This edition of From CW the Archives revisits CW’s first plant tour — a visit to the F-35 FAL in Fort Worth, Texas — and a story by Ginger Gardiner a few years later. Both offer lessons on how to perform stacked drilling through composite and metalic materials.
Marine industry constituents are looking to take composite use one step further with the production of tough and recyclable recreational boats. Some are using new infusible thermoplastic resins.
JEC World 2024: EuCIA is offering demonstrators of its Eco Impact Calculator LCA tool, and holding discussions about its initiatives in composite materials circularity, including a recent position paper and the EU-funded REFRESH project.
Completed in December 2023, the pilot production line at Mitsui Chemicals Nagoya Works began trials in January and will supply carbon fiber samples within fiscal 2024.
During the one-day virtual event on April 17 from 11 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. ET, seven industry experts will provide insight into hot topics like waste reduction, energy efficiency, bio-materials and recycling.
Marine industry constituents are looking to take composite use one step further with the production of tough and recyclable recreational boats. Some are using new infusible thermoplastic resins.
Increasingly, prototype and production-ready smart devices featuring thermoplastic composite cases and other components provide lightweight, optimized sustainable alternatives to metal.
The Carbon Fibre Circular Alliance (CFCA) brought together OEMs and technical partners to reclaim short carbon fibers from end-of-life sports equipment, realign into continuous prepreg tapes and remanufacture into new equipment.
Closed mold processes offer many advantages over open molding. This knowledge center details the basics of closed mold methods and the products and tools essential to producing a part correctly.
In the Automated Composites Knowledge Center, CGTech brings you vital information about all things automated composites.
This CW Tech Days event will explore the technologies, materials, and strategies that can help composites manufacturers become more sustainable.
The composites industry is increasingly recognizing the imperative of sustainability in its operations. As demand for lightweight and durable materials rises across various sectors, such as automotive, aerospace, and construction, there is a growing awareness of the environmental impact associated with traditional composite manufacturing processes.
CompositesWorld’s CW Tech Days: Infrastructure event offers a series of expert presentations on composite materials, processes and applications that should and will be considered for use in the infrastructure and construction markets.
CW’s editors are tracking the latest trends and developments in tooling, from the basics to new developments. This collection, presented by Composites One, features four recent CW stories that detail a range of tooling technologies, processes and materials.
Explore the cutting-edge composites industry, as experts delve into the materials, tooling, and manufacturing hurdles of meeting the demands of the promising advanced air mobility (AAM) market. Join us at CW Tech Days to unlock the future of efficient composites fabrication operations.
During CW Tech Days: Thermoplastics for Large Structures, experts explored the materials and processing technologies that are enabling the transition to large-part manufacturing.
CompositesWorld’s CW Tech Days: Infrastructure event offers a series of expert presentations on composite materials, processes and applications that should and will be considered for use in the infrastructure and construction markets.
Explore the cutting-edge composites industry, as experts delve into the materials, tooling, and manufacturing hurdles of meeting the demands of the promising advanced air mobility (AAM) market. Join us at CW Tech Days to unlock the future of efficient composites fabrication operations.
Thermoplastics for Large Structures, experts explored the materials and processing technologies that are enabling the transition to large-part manufacturing.
Explore the technologies, materials, and strategies that can help composites manufacturers become more sustainable.
A report on the demand for hydrogen as an energy source and the role composites might play in the transport and storage of hydrogen.
This collection features detail the current state of the industry and recent success stories across aerospace, automotive and rail applications.
This collection details the basics, challenges, and future of thermoplastic composites technology, with particular emphasis on their use for commercial aerospace primary structures.
This collection features recent CW stories that detail a range of tooling technologies, processes and materials.
The old art behind this industry’s first fiber reinforcement is explained,with insights into new fiber science and future developments.
Glass fiber was the first reinforcement used in modern polymeric composites but springs from an ancient art. Here, glass fiber ends are wound side-by-side onto warp beams (large rolls or cylinders) which will be used later in a fiberglass fabric-weaving operation. Source | AGY
Fiberglass is the original fiber reinforcement of modern composites. Though the ancient Phoenicians, Egyptians and Greeks knew how to melt glass and stretch it into thin fibers, it wasn’t until the 1930s that the process evolved into commercial-scale manufacturing of continuous fibers, which would later be used as structural reinforcements. Patent applications filed between 1933 and 1937 by Games Slayter, John Thomas and Dale Kleist, employees of Owens-Illinois Glass Co. (Toledo, Ohio), record the key developments that step-changed the industry from producing discontinuous-fiber glass wool to making continuous glass filaments with diameters as small as 4 microns (4 millionths of a meter) and thousands of feet long. Ensuing breakthroughs made the process commercially viable and cost-competitive.
The last two patents from this series, entitled “Textile Material” and “Glass Fabric,” foreshadowed the future of glass fiber as a textile reinforcement. The patents were awarded in 1938, the same year that Owens-Illinois and Corning Glass Works (Corning, N.Y.) joined to form Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp. (OCF). The new company marketed its glass fiber under the trade name Fiberglas, which was the genesis of the common generic reference to fiberglass. It was not long before a number of other manufacturers entered the market and, through numerous process and product innovations, contributed to a worldwide structural composite reinforcements market, that according to market research firm Lucintel (Dallas, Texas, U.S.), reached 2.5 billion pounds in 2018.
Glass fiber is made by blending raw materials, melting them in a three-stage furnace furnace, extruding the molten glass through a bushing in the bottom of the forehearth, cooling the filaments with water and then applying a chemical size. The filaments then are gathered and wound into a package. Source | OCV
Textile-grade glass fibers are made from silica (SiO2) sand, which melts at 1720°C/3128°F. SiO2 is also the basic element in quartz, a naturally occurring rock. Quartz, however, is crystalline (rigid, highly ordered atomic structure) and is 99% or more SiO2. If SiO2 is heated above 1200°C/2192°F then cooled ambiently, it crystallizes and becomes quartz. Glass is produced by altering the temperature and cooldown rates. If pure SiO2 is heated to 1720°C/3128°F then cooled quickly, crystallization can be prevented and the process yields the amorphous or randomly ordered atomic structure we know as glass.
Although continuously refined and improved, today’s glass fiber manufacturers combine this high heat/quick cool strategy with other steps in a process that is basically the same as that developed in the 1930s, albeit on a much larger scale. This process can be broken down into five basic steps: batching, melting, fiberization, coating and drying/packaging.
Although a viable commercial glass fiber can be made from silica alone, other ingredients are added to reduce the working temperature and impart other properties that are useful in specific applications.
For example, E-glass, originally aimed at electrical applications, with a composition including SiO2, AI2O3 (aluminum oxide or alumina), CaO (calcium oxide or lime) and MgO (magnesium oxide or magnesia), was developed as a more alkali-resistant alternative to the original soda lime glass. Later, boron was added via B2O3 (boron oxide) to increase the difference between the temperatures at which the E-glass batch melted and at which it formed a crystalline structure to prevent clogging of the nozzles used in fiberization (Step 3, below).
S-glass fibers, developed for higher strength, are based on a SiO2-AI2O3-MgO formulation but contain higher percentages of SiO2 for applications in which tensile strength is the most important property.
In the initial stage of glass manufacture, therefore, these materials must be carefully weighed in exact quantities and thoroughly mixed (batched). Batching has become automated, using computerized weighing units and enclosed material transport systems. For example, in Owens Corning’s plant in Taloja, India, each ingredient is transported via pneumatic conveyors to its designated multistory storage bin (silo), which is capable of holding 70 to 260 ft³ (1.98 to 7.36m³) of material. Directly beneath each bin is an automated weighing and feeding system, which transfers the precise amount of each ingredient to a pneumatic blender in the batch house basement.
From the batch house, another pneumatic conveyor sends the mixture to a high temperature (≈1400ºC/2552ºF) natural gas-fired furnace for melting. The furnace is typically divided into three sections, with channels that aid glass flow. The first section receives the batch, where melting occurs and uniformity is increased, including removal of bubbles. The molten glass then flows into the refiner, where its temperature is reduced to 1370ºC/2500ºF. The final section is the forehearth, beneath which is located a series of four to seven bushings that, in the next step, are used to extrude the molten glass into fibers. Large furnaces have several channels, each with its own forehearth.
This direct melt furnace at OCV’s reinforcements plant in Amarillo, Texas processes 30,000 tonnes of molten glass per year via nine burners which operate more efficiently by using oxygen, instead of air, to help the natural gas fuel burn hotter and cleaner. Source | OCV
According to Scott Northrup, global business development director for AGY (Aiken, S.C.), furnace operation is being improved on several fronts. The use of larger furnaces has increased throughput to between 30,000 and 40,000 metric tonnes (66.2 to 88.2 million pounds) per year. One of the most important advances has been digital control technology. “Digital controls ... measure and manage the precise temperature of the glass as it moves through the furnace as well as the gas ... and oxygen flow rates.” They also maintain a smoother, steadier flow to the fiberization equipment, avoiding air bubbles or other interruptions that could cause discontinuities in fiber formation. Control of oxygen flow rates are crucial because furnaces that use the latest technology burn nearly pure oxygen instead of air because it helps the natural gas fuel to burn cleaner and hotter, melting glass more efficiently. It also lowers operating costs by using less energy and reduces nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions by 75% and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 40%.
Because the furnace is a consumable — the process of melting and moving the glass wears away the refractory bricks that line the furnace interior — efforts are being made to increase the brick’s service life. Glass fiber production is a continuous process, says AGY sales and marketing VP Drew Walker, “Once production begins, you don’t shut it down.” Manufacturers say that a typical furnace averages 12 to 15 years between rebuilds, with seven years as a worst-case scenario. Walker explains that at up to $150 million for construction of a new manufacturing site and $10 million to $15 million for a new furnace or rebuild, extending furnace life translates directly into dollars.
The industry takes three main approaches to glass melting: (1) indirect melt (also called marble remelt); (2) direct melt using larger-scale furnaces (8,000 to 100,000 metric tonnes per year); and (3) direct melt using smaller-scale furnaces (150 to 200 metric tonnes per year), which are also called paramelters. For indirect marble remelt, molten glass is sheared and rolled into marbles roughly 0.62 inch (15 to 16 millimeters) in diameter, which are cooled, packaged and then transported to a fiber manufacturing facility where they are remelted for fiberization (see “Step 3”). The marbles facilitate visual inspection of the glass for impurities, resulting in a more consistent product. The direct melt process transfers molten glass in the furnace directly to fiber-forming equipment. Because direct melting eliminates the intermediate steps and the cost of forming marbles, it has become the most widely used method.
Molten glass exits the furnace at ≈1340°C/2444°F and is extruded through heated bushing plates (top image), which have 200 to 8,000 very small orifices, or nozzles. The winders (lower part of bottom image) apply tension to the extruded glass, drawing it out into thin filaments. These are cooled by water spray (the mist can be seen near the top of the bottom image), coated with size (via the roller) and gathered together to form a strand. Source | OCV (top) and PPG (bottom)
Glass fiber formation, or fiberization, involves a combination of extrusionand attenuation. In extrusion, the molten glass passes out of the forehearth through a bushing made of an erosion-resistant platinum/rhodium alloy with very fine orifices, from 200 to as many as 8,000. Bushing plates are heated electronically, and their temperature is precisely controlled to maintain a constant glass viscosity. Water jets cool the filaments as they exit the bushing at roughly 1204ºC/2200ºF. Attenuation is the process of mechanically drawing the extruded streams of molten glass into fibrous elements called filaments, with a diameter ranging from 4 to 34 micrometers (one-tenth the diameter of a human hair). A high-speed winder catches the molten streams and, because it revolves at a circumferential speed of ~2 miles/~3 kilometers per minute (much faster than the molten glass exits the bushings), tension is applied, drawing them into thin filaments.
The bushings are expensive, and their nozzle design is critical to fiberization. Nozzle diameter determines filament diameter, and the nozzle quantity equals the number of ends. A 4,000-nozzle bushing may be used to produce a single roving product or the process can be configured to make four rovings with 1,000 ends each. The bushing also controls the fiber yield or yards of fiber per pound of glass. (The metric unit, tex, measures fiber linear density; 1 tex = 1 gram/kilometer, and yield is the inverse, yard/pound.) A fiber with a yield of 1,800 yard/pound (275 tex) would have a smaller diameter than a 56 yard/pound (8,890 tex) fiber, and an 800-nozzle bushing produces a smaller yield than a 4,000-nozzle bushing. This helps to explain why Wisdom Dzotsi, Americas glass business manager for OCV Reinforcements (Toledo, Ohio, a combination of the reinforcements and fabrics businesses of Owens Corning and Saint-Gobain Vetrotex), views a 4,000-nozzle bushing as the sweet spot that has evolved for optimizing production flexibility. In contrast, AGY uses 800-orifice bushings because, as Walker explains, “We are a smaller company whose glass yarn and specialty fiber business is based on finer filaments and smaller-run niche products.”
Bushing design is advancing. Kevin Richardson, market development director for PPG Industries (Pittsburgh, Pa.) notes, “There are emerging developments in bushing design that further enhance performance via tailored filament diameters and also contribute to total furnace throughputs, lowering cost.” AGY agrees, stating that the range of fiber diameter, or micronage, has become more varied as composite reinforcements have become more specialized. Although OCV sees 17 and 24 micrometers (μm) as the most popular diameters, its reinforcement products vary from 4 to 32 μm, while AGY’s products typically fall in the 4 to 9 μm range.
Walker notes that all fiberglass manufacturers want to produce as much glass fiber per hour as possible. Advances in winding have enabled producers to triple efficiency. Walker explains, “We process more packages at once now; 20 years ago we may have used two packages where now it is common to use six.” (See “Step 5.”)
In the final stage, a chemical coating, or size, is applied. (Although the terms binder, size and sizing often are used interchangeably in the industry, size is the correct term for the coating applied, and sizing is the process used to apply it. See “Learn More,” at right.)
Size is typically added at 0.5 to 2.0% by weight and may include lubricants, binders and/or coupling agents. The lubricants help to protect the filaments from abrading and breaking as they are collected and wound into forming packages and, later, when they are processed by weavers or other converters into fabrics or other reinforcement forms. Coupling agents cause the fiber to have an affinity for a particular resin chemistry, improving resin wetout and strengthening the adhesive bond at the fiber-matrix interface. Some size chemistries are compatible only with polyester resin and some only with epoxy while others may be used with a variety of resins. AGY, OCV and PPG agree that size chemistry is crucial to glass fiber performance, and each company considers its size chemistry to be proprietary. PPG believes that in many composite applications, performance can be achieved via size chemistry as effectively as, if not more than, glass batch chemistry. For example, its 2026 size chemistry used with HYBON products for wind blades reportedly achieves an order of magnitude improvement in blade fatigue life by improving fiber wet out and fiber adhesion to all resin types.
Finally, the drawn, sized filaments are collected together into a bundle, forming a glass strand composed of 51 to 1,624 filaments. The strand is wound onto a drum into a forming package that resembles a spool of thread. The forming packages, still wet from water cooling and sizing, are then dried in an oven, and afterward they are ready to be palletized and shipped or further processed into chopped fiber, roving or yarn. Roving is a collection of strands with little or no twist. An assembled roving, for example, made from 10 to 15 strands wound together into a multi-end roving package, requires additional handling and processing steps. Yarn is made from one or more strands, which may be twisted to protect the integrity of the yarn during subsequent processing operations, such as weaving.
Although the basic glass fiber process has changed little since its commercialization 80 years ago, it has undergone many refinements. Two continuous threads run through fiberglass manufacturing’s history: the drive to increase production throughput and bring cost down and the desire to improve the performance properties of the finished product. Manufacturers continue to push forward on both fronts (see the "Glass Fiber: The Market" sidebars, below) in their pursuit of ever-newer applications for fiberglass-reinforced composite
Thirty years ago, glass reinforcements for composites were of mainly two types: E-glass and S-glass. E-glass was one of the first used to produce continuous glass filament and still makes up the majority of the world’s fiberglass production today. The ASTM standards that regulate glass type definition essentially outline the constituent materials, not the final properties required. Thus, a change in glass type indicates a discrete composition of raw ingredients, which may include a variety of elements (see chart above). Responding to market demands for higher properties, tailored performance for specific applications and lower cost, glass fiber manufacturers now offer a number of more specifically targeted product types.
Manufacturers continue to refine each type, improving properties and/or processability. One example is a trend in E-glass manufacturing toward the removal of boron. Although boron facilitates fiberization (see main article, above), it is expensive and produces undesirable emissions. Its removal has reduced cost and ensures a more environmentally friendly glass fiber. OCV Reinforcements’ (Toledo, Ohio) boron-free product, Advantex, is actually its second-generation E-CR glass. Its first iteration, in the 1980s, was a response to a market need for even higher corrosion-resistance coupled with good electrical performance. However, because its original patented E-CR glass was difficult to make, and thus more expensive to end-users, OCV developed Advantex, which is more cost-effective to produce, thanks to a lower-cost, boron-free batch composition and the elimination of scrubbers and other environmental equipment previously required to capture boron emissions.
Other process developments enable the use of higher temperatures, producing higher properties, while reducing the overall energy usage. OCV is converting all of its global reinforcements manufacturing to Advantex, including the 19 Saint-Gobain Vetrotex reinforcements plants it acquired in 2007. Its patent on E-CR glass recently expired, enabling companies like Fiberex (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada) and Chongqing Polycomp International Corp. (CPIC, Chongqing, China) to emerge with their own versions.
S-glass also has evolved. Driven by the U.S. military’s need for high-strength, lightweight glass fiber for missile motor casings, Owens Corning pioneered it and subsequently developed an improved form trademarked as S-2 Glass, which features a tensile strength 40% higher and a tensile modulus 20% higher than E-glass. These properties are derived from its composition, though the manufacturing process helps to maintain that performance, as does using the correct size for the polymer matrix in the final composite structure. This business — a mixture of fine glass yarns and S-2 Glass fiber products — was spun off in 1998 as a joint venture with weaver Groupe Porcher of Lyon, France. When the market for fine yarns moved to Asia, the business went into Chapter 11 in 2002 and was reorganized and emerged in 2004 as AGY (Aiken, S.C.), which since has targeted low-volume, high-value niche markets.
Because its furnaces average 3,000 and 100 metric tonnes (6.6 million and 220,460 pounds) per year vs. the 33,000 metric tonnes (72.7 million pounds) per year of the larger glass fiber producers, AGY can offer trademarked S-3 Glass, which is a high-performance glass product tailored to meet very specific, technical manufacturing requirements. AGY’s Scott Northrup explains, “This is ‘designer glass,’ and we can make 100 tons of it, customized to meet one customer’s precise specifications.” AGY’s new HPB bio-compatible glass fiber, developed for long-term medical implants (over 30 days), is one example of its S-3 Glass technology. HPB already has been adopted for orthodontics and dental implants, and AGY is pursuing other implant applications, such as orthopedics.
Other higher-performance products include T-glass, manufactured by Nittobo (Tokyo, Japan), and Sinoma Science & Technology’s (Nanjing, China) HS2 and HS4 products, distributed in Europe and North America exclusively by PPG Industries (Pittsburgh, Pa.).
According to AGY’s Drew Walker, higher-performance glass fiber types have traditionally been harder to produce, requiring higher melt temperatures in smaller paramelter furnaces with low throughput, all of which increases cost.
Both AGY and OCV saw a need for higher-performance glass fiber at a lower cost. AGY’s answer was its trademarked S-1 Glass, situated between E-glass and S-2 Glass in performance and cost. AGY claims that S-1 Glass is well-suited for composite wind blades, where its higher properties reduce the amount of glass fiber required as blade lengths are extended. OCV’s response was its high-performance glass (HPG) process, introduced in 2006, which achieved production of HPG fibers on a larger scale at lower cost.
According to OCV’s Wisdom Dzotsi, “Until this time, the industry thought it wasn’t possible to fiberize high-performance glass in large quantities and maintain it at the high temperatures required,” but he contends, “Our new process uses furnaces not as large as those used to make E-glass, but 50 times larger than a paramelter.”
The resulting array of R-glass products includes 17 μm WindStrand, which features a tensile modulus not quite as high as S-glass but higher than E-glass at an affordable cost for very long wind blades, and ShieldStrand, at 12.5 μm, which is sized to enable progressive delamination of composite armor by allowing separation at the fiber/matrix interface upon impact while maintaining static mechanical properties of the composite.
There are two general trends in the glass fiber industry: one is upward, toward enormous growth, and the other is downward, toward lower cost. China has had a hand in both.
China has been a key driver in the growth of global fiberglass production, in part because of its own rapidly rising rate of domestic consumption, which, per some market reports, comprises roughly 31% of global consumption. China is also the world’s largest fiberglass-producing nation. China’s three primary manufacturers are Jushi Group (Tongxiang, Zhejiang), Chongqing Polycomp International Corp. (CPIC, Chongqing) and Taishan Fiberglass Inc. (TFI, Shandong).
Historically, most of China’s glass fiber production was basic E-glass product not used in composites. Chinese producers of high-performance products have emerged, such as Nanching-based Sinoma Science & Technology. China does offer low labor costs as well as favorable Chinese government export treatment, which encourages export sales. This is an advantage in the production of more labor-intensive products, such as assembled rovings, where multiple strands are wound together into a multi-end roving package, requiring additional handling and processing steps.
According to PPG Industries’ (Pittsburgh, Pa.) Kevin Richardson, most roving and yarn production moved offshore years ago. “Product lines such as sprayup and SMC rovings moved to lower-cost platforms like China, while all of our North American and European plants are geared toward high-throughput, direct fiber processes for highly specified applications,” he adds. “Many growth markets utilizing composites typically use these single-end, direct-draw rovings and fiber products.”
OCV Reinforcements (Toledo, Ohio) manufactures its R-glass products in Mexico City. OCV’s Wisdom Dzotsi explains, “Asia does have lower labor and energy costs, but OCV also looks at total landed cost, which includes transportation logistics and import duties into the market country. For R-glass, it may not ever make economic sense to manufacture in China, but then again, markets may emerge that demand these products.”
A general trend, says OCV, is the continuing push toward increased performance at lower price. According to Dzotsi, in a typical graph of specific tensile strength (GPa per pound, y-axis) vs. material cost (dollars per pound, x-axis), aluminum and steel are at the bottom left; E-glass and Advantex are slightly above; next comes R-glass and then S-glass; and then aramid and carbon fiber are at the top right. (Tensile strength values for glass fibers are shown in the "Glass Fiber Mechanical Properties" chart, above.) “What the composite customer is asking for today,” says Dzotsi, “is performance toward the right but at a price more toward E-glass. Thus, what OCV is trying to do is break the cost/performance curve in order to achieve this: Shift high-performance glass to the left so that performance (y-axis) is maintained while cost is reduced.” OCV believes this is the route to achieving a goal common to all glass fiber producers — a goal summarized by AGY’s (Aiken, S.C.) Drew Walker: “To replace traditional materials like steel, wood and aluminum with glass-reinforced composites, and increase the overall amount of composites used.”
This article was originally published 6/1/2020, updated 6/30/2022
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